ISLAMABAD, 10. Oktober. Pakistans selbst ernannter Präsident General Pervez Musharraf bleibt Optimist. "In ein paar Tagen", so versichert er Besuchern, werde die Führung der radikalislamischen Talibanmilizen um Mullah Mohammed Omar Geschichte sein. Aber von Washington bis Islamabad geht die Sorge um, was nach dem Fall des "Führers der Gläubigen" in der Zeit des Machtvakuums in Afghanistan passieren wird. "Es gibt bisher noch keine politische Alternative", sagt ein Diplomat.
"Die verschiedenen afghanischen Exilgruppen hatten bis Mitte September sehr wenig Kontakt untereinander", sagt Thomas Ruttig, der das Kabuler Büro der Vereinten Nationen leitet. Trotz aller hektischen Bemühungen in den vergangenen Wochen steht bislang nur eine Vereinbarung: Der 1973 abgesetzte, in Rom lebende ehemalige König Zahir Shah (86) schmiedete einen Bund mit der "Nordallianz". Diese Gruppe, die im Norden des Landes gegen die Taliban kämpft, wird von Burhanuddin Rabbani geführt. Rabbani gehört zur tadschikischen Minderheit aus der Stadt Faizabad am Fuße des Pamirgebirges im Norden des Landes.
Doch der Pakt mit der Gruppe, die bei internen Auseinandersetzungen in der ersten Hälfte der 90er-Jahre die Hauptstadt Kabul in Schutt und Asche legte und deshalb von Afghanistans Paschtunenmehrheit im Süden gefürchtet wird, scheint dem König geschadet zu haben. "Dies war ein Fehler", sagt Ishaq Galiani von der "Bewegung der Nationalen Solidarität", der während der vergangenen Jahre Verbindungen zu den Taliban und zu ihren Gegnern pflegte. Galiani gilt deshalb als mögliche Kompromissfigur für die Ära nach Talibanchef Mullah Omar. Sein Nachteil: Er verfügt über keine militärische Hausmacht.
Galianis Befürchtungen scheinen sich zu bestätigen. "Wir hatten beschlossen, einen nationalen Rat, die ,Loya Jirga‘, zu unterstützen, die vom König einberufen werden soll", sagt Abdul Jalal Siddiqi, ein Stammesältester der Paschtunen aus der Provinz Khost bei einem Besuch in der pakistanischen Grenzstadt Peshawar. "Aber dann hörten wir, er habe sich mit der Nordallianz verbündet. Jetzt wollen wir unser Land verteidigen."
Unmut in den Provinzen
Siddiqis Heimatprovinz Khost gehört neben Paktia und Paktika zu den Regionen im Südosten Afghanistans, auf deren Stammesältesten ebenfalls die Hoffnungen für einen Sturz des Talibanregimes ruhen. Zweimal musste Mullah Omar während des vergangenen Jahres in Khost den Gouverneur auswechseln, weil die lokale Bevölkerung die Auswahl des "Führers der Gläubigen" ablehnte.
In der pakistanischen Stadt Quetta lässt der afghanische Exilpolitiker Hamid Karzai dennoch unverdrossen seine Kontakte jenseits der Grenze spielen, um eine "Loya Jirga" aller sozialen Kräfte auf die Beine zu stellen. "Wir müssen bestimmt 700 bis 1 000 Delegierte in einer Anfangsphase einladen," sagt er. Seit rund tausend Jahren nutzen Afghanen diese Beratungen, um sich aus selbst verschuldetem Schlamassel? zu retten. 1747 wurde bei einer "Loya Jirga" Ahmad Khan vom Durrani-Stamm zum König gewählt, ein Vorfahre des 1973 gestürzten Zahir Shah.
Mudschaheddin hoffen
Der Nachteil des Plans: Viele Mudschaheddin-Kommandeure aus der Zeit des Widerstands gegen die sowjetischen Besatzungstruppen versprechen sich von der Versammlung ein Comeback. Sie erinnern sich an die Zeiten des "Heiligen Kriegs" gegen Moskau, als der nordamerikanische Geheimdienst CIA in Hülle und Fülle US-Dollars an die Gotteskrieger verteilteSo kehrte nach Jahren des Exils in Dubai auch Abdul Haq nach Peshawar zurück und versucht nun, die Stammesältesten der Provinzen Nangahar, Kunar und Laghman auf seine Seite
zu ziehen. "Die Luftangriffe der USA sind ein Fehler", erklärte er am Mittwoch in der Hoffnung, den Nationalstolz der Paschtunen für seine Zwecke auszunutzen, "wir hätten in ein paar Monaten die Talibanführung ohnehin gestürzt".
Solche Ansichten gehören in das Reich der Träume. In der Vergangenheit wurden viele gefährliche Konkurrenten von den Talibanmilizen ermordet. Deshalb brauchen ihre Gegner nun eine "befreite Zone" oder ein UN-Protektorat unter internationalem militärischen Schutz. Dort könnte sich die "Loya Jirga" auf neutralem Boden treffen.
Nachbarstaaten besorgt
Freilich setzen auch Afghanistans Nachbarstaaten auf eine "Loya Jirga", um Meinungsverschiedenheiten beizulegen. Islamabad will unbedingt eine von der Nordallianz dominierte Regierung verhindern, weil die Hasara, Tadschiken- und Usbekenminderheiten sonst im Nachbarland tonangebend wären. Der Iran möchte keine Regierung mit einer überstarken Paschtunen-Fraktion. Zumindest eine Veränderung gegenüber den vergangenen Jahrzehnten gibt es. "Kein Nachbarland will seinen Einfluss mehr ausdehnen", sagt ein Diplomat, "jetzt wären alle mit einem stabilen und friedlichen Afghanistan zufrieden".
www.berlinonline.de/aktuelles/.../thema_heute/.html/81729.html
Um das Geschehen besser zu verstehen,habe ich hier einiges zusammengetragen.
Abriss der Geschichte Afghanistans seit der Jahrhundertwende
1893
--Die Durand Linie verknüpft die Grenzen Afghanistans mit Indien, teilt afghanische Völker und hinterläßt die Hälfte dieser Afghanen im heutigen Pakistan.
--1895
--Afghanistans nördliche Grenze wird erstellt und von den Russen gewährleistet.
--1901
--Abdur Rahman stirbt und sein Sohn Habibullah wird sein Nachfolger.
--Langsame Schritte zur Modernisierung.
--1907
--Rußland und Großbritannien unterschreiben das Übereinkommen von St. Petersburg, in dem verkündet wird, dass sich Afghanistan außerhalb des russischen Einflußbereiches befindet.
--1918
--Mahmud Tarzi (afghanischer Intellektueller) führt mit der Entwicklung mehrerer Zeitungen den modernen Journalismus in Afghanistan ein.
--1919
--Habibullah wird ermordet und sein Sohn Amanullah (der Reformkönig) übernimmt seinen Thron.
--Das erste afghanische Museum wird in Baghe Bala eingerichtet.
--1921
--Dritter britisch-afghanischer Krieg
--Die Briten werden erneut besiegt und Afghanistan übernimmt die gesamte Kontrolle über seine Auslandsangelegenheiten.
--Vertrag von Ranalpindi
--Amanullah Khan beginnt eine Serie von Bemühungen um die politische und soziale Modernisierung in die Wege zu leiten.
--1923
--Amanullah Khan ändert seinen Titel von Amir zu Padshah (König).
--1929
--Amanullah Khan wird von Habibullah Kalakani gestürzt.
--Nach diesem Sturz ersucht Mahmud Tarzi Asyl in der Türkei.
--Der Aufstieg und Sturz von Habibullah Kalakani wird als "Bache Saqaw" bekannt.
--Nadir Khan nimmt den Thron ein.
--Aufgrund der leeren Schatzkammer plündert seine Volksarmee Regierungsgebäude und Häuser reicher Bürger.
--Habibullah Kalakani, seine Unterstützer und einige Unterstützer Amanullah Khans werden von Nadir Khan umgebracht.
--Nadir Khan hat die gesamte Kontrolle.
--1930
--Mai --> Ein Pro-Amanullah Khan Aufstand wird von Nadir Khan unterdrückt.
--Nadir Khan schafft Reformen, die von Amanullah Khan fortgesetzt wurden um Afghanistan zu modernisieren, ab.
--1933
--Nadir Khan wird von einem Studenten ermordet.
--Sein Sohn Zahir erbt den Thron und regiert bis 1973.
--Zahir Shahs Onkel dienen als Premierminister und Berater bis 1953.
--Mahmud Tarzi stirbt im Alter von 68 Jahren in der Türkei.
--1934
--Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika bemerken Afghanistan.
--1938
--Die Staatsbank von Afghanistan wird gegründet.
--1939
--15. Januar --> Unbedeutender Pro-Amanullah Khan Aufstand
--1940
--Zahir Shah verkündet Afghanistans Neutralität während des 2. Weltkrieges.
--1947
--Großbritannien zieht sich aus Indien zurück.
--Pakistan entsteht aus indischen und afghanischen Gebieten.
--1949
--Afghanistans Parlament kündigt den Durand Vertrag und weigert sich die Durand Linie als offizielle Grenze zwischen Pakistan und Afghanistan anzuerkennen.
--Pashtunen in Pashtunistan (besetztes afghanisches Land) verkünden ein unabhängiges Pashtunistan, jedoch wird dieses von der Weltgemeinde nicht bestätigt.
--1953
--Prinz Mohammad Daoud wird Premierminister.
--1954
--Die USA lehnen Afghanistans Gesuch, militärische Ausrüstung zur Modernisierung der Armee zu kaufen, ab.
--1955
--Daoud wendet sich für militärische Unterstützung an die Sowjwtunion.
--Die Pashtunische Frage flammt auf.
--1956
--Kruschev und Bulgarien erklären sich bereit Afghanistan zu helfen.
--Enge Beziehung zwischen Afghanistan und der UDSSR
--1959
--Die Purdah wird freigestellt, Frauen beginnen sich in Universitäten einzuschreiben, die miterzieherisch geworden sind.
--Frauen beginnen in die Belegschaft der Regierung einzusteigen.
--1961
--Pakistan und Afghanistan sind wegen der Pashtunistan-Frage am Rande eines Krieges.
--1963-1964
--Zahir Shah verlangt Daouds Rücktritt.
--Dr. Mohammad Yusof wird Premierminister.
--1965
--Januar --> Die afghanische kommunistische Partei entsteht im Untergrund. Einer ihrer Gründer ist Babrak Karmal
--September --> erste nationale Wahlen unter der neuen Verfassung
--Karmal wird ins Parlament gewählt. Er ist Anstifter späterer Krawalle.
--Zahir und Yussof gründen die zweite Regierung.
--1969
--Zweite nationale Wahlen
--Babrak und Hafizullah Amin werden gewählt.
--1972
--Mohammad Moussa wird Premierminister.
--1973
--17. Juli --> Zahir Shahs Regierung wird durch einen von Daoud Khan und der PDPA (afgh. kommunistische Partei) geführten Militärputsch gestürzt, während er sich im Urlaub in Europa aufhält.
--Daoud Khan schafft die Monarchie ab und ernennt sich selbst zum Präsidenten
--Die afghanische Republik ist gegründet.
--1974--
--Die UNESCO ernennt Herat zum Weltkulturerbe.
--1975-1977
--Daoud Khan präsentiert eine neue Verfassung.
--Frauenrechte werden bestätigt.
--Daoud beginnt verdächtigte Gegner seiner Regierung zu vertreiben.
--1978
--Blutiger Kommunistenputsch
--Daoud wird umgebracht.
--Taraki wird Präsident und Karmal sein stellvertretender Premierminister.
--Spannungen steigern sich.
--Massenverhaftungen und Folter
-- Änderung der afghanischen Flagge
--Taraki unterzeichnet einen Freundschaftsvertrag mit der Sowjetunion.
--Juni --> Die afghanische Guerrilla Bewegung wird geboren, Mujahideen
--1979
--Massenermordungen
--Amerikanischer Botschafter wird ermordet.
--Taraki wird umgebracht und Hafizullah Amin übernimmt die Präsidentschaft.
--Amin wird hingerichtet und von Babrak Karmal ersetzt.
--Dezember --> Die Sowjetunion marschiert in Afghanistan ein.
--1980
--Dr. Najibullah wird aus der UDSSR zurückgebracht, um die Geheimpolizei zu führen.
--1984
--Die UN sendet Untersuchungsbeamte nach Afghanistan um gemeldete Menschenrechtsverletzungen zu überprüfen.
--1986
--Babrak Karmal wird durch Dr. Najibullah ersetzt.
--1987
--Najibullah schlägt Waffenruhe vor, doch die Mujahideen weigern sich mit einer "Marionettenregierung" zu verhandeln.
--Mujahideen siegen.
--1988--1989
--Die Sowjetunion verliert den Krieg gegen Afghanistan
--Totaler Rückzug der Sowjets am 15.02.1989.
--Der Friedensvertrag wird in Genf unterzeichnet.
--Laut Experten haben neben den Verwundeten, Selbstmördern und Ermordeten mindestens 40.000-50.000 Sowjets ihr Leben verloren.
--Mujahideen setzen ihren Kampf gegen Najibullahs Regime fort..
--Mai --> Afghanische Guerrillas wählen Sibhhatullah Mojadidi als Oberhaupt ihrer Regierung im Exil.
--1992
--15. April --> Die Mujahideen nehmen Kabul ein und befreien Afghanistan.
--Najibullah wird von der UN geschützt.
--Die Mujahideen gründen einen Islamischen Staat--Islamic Jihad Council
--Wahlen
--Iranische and pakistanische Interventionen steigen.
--Kämpfe
--Professor Burhannudin Rabbani wird zum Präsidenten gewählt.
--1994
--Die Taliban Milz wird geboren und dringt rapide in die islamische Regierung vor.
--Dostum und Hekmatyar fahren mit ihrem Kampf gegen Rabbanis Regierung fort.
--1995
--Massive Siege der Taliban.
--Verstärkte pakistanische und iranische Interventionen.
--1996
--Juni --> Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Oberhaupt der Hezbi-Islami, unterzeichnet einen Friedenspakt mit Rabbani und kehrt zurück nach Kabul um als Premierminister zu regieren.
--27. September --> Die Taliban Miliz zwingt Präsident Rabbani und seine Regierung Kabul zu verlassen.
--Nach der Eroberung Kabuls wird Najibullah von den Taliban öffentlich gehängt.
--Allianz zwischen der Regierung, Hezbi Wahdat und Dostum.
--Unerdrückung der Frauen durch die Taliban.
--Frauen müssen vollständig verschleiert sein, dürfen ihre Arbeit nicht mehr ausüben, nicht ohne männliche Begleitung das Haus verlassen oder gar weiße Socken tragen.
--Männer werden gezwungen Bärte zu tragen.
--Buzkashi, der afghanische Nationalsport wird geächtet und verboten.
--Spannungen verstärken sich, als die afghanische Regierung Pakistan beschuldigt die Taliban zu unterstützen.
--Massive Menschenrechtsverletzungen durch die Taliban.
www.afghan-german.de/d/gesch/gesch.htm
Afghanistan und seine Beziehungen zu Deutschland-Waffenhandel+Kultur
Ohne die Provokation der beiden großen Nachbarn soll nach Möglichkeiten gesucht werden, das Waffenmonopol Russlands und Englands zu unterlaufen, indem man eine andere europäische Quelle für Waffen erschließt. Den ersten, wenn auch bescheidenen Schritt in dieser Richtung unter- nahm der König im Jahre 1898, indem er Gottlieb Fleischer, einen deutschen Angestellten der Firma Krupp, anstellte. Er wurde allerdings bald, am 4. November 1904, das Opfer einer mysteriösen Mordattentats. Der erste Weltkrieg, der den Kriegsmächten einigermaßen globale Strategien aufzwang, konnte Deutschland dazu veranlassen, mit Afghanistan, einem strategisch wichtigem Land zwischen dem Imperium und dem englischen Kronjuwel Indien politischen Kontakt aufzunehmen. Damit fand die erst wirkliche und die Zukunft bestimmende Begegnung zwischen Afghanistan und Deutschland statt: Die gemeinsame Mission der Mittelmächte, bestehend aus den Türken, Deutschen und Österreichern, die auch von Indien begleitet wurde, kam im August 1915 in Herat und am 26. September 1915 in Kabul an. Den Kern dieser Mission bildete jedoch die deutsche Mission, die wegen ihre komplizierten Führungssituation meistens als Niedermayer-Heting-Mission bezeichnet wurde...
. Nach der Ankunft der Mission in Kabul wurde ihr klar, dass sie hier am Ziel ebenso große Schwierigkeiten zu bewältigen haben wird wie unterwegs, Denn der König mußte unter verschiedenen Maximen der afghanischen Politik eine konkrete Entscheidung über den Krieg und den Frieden treffen. Die Erinnerung an den zweiten anglo-afghanischen Krieg von 1878 - 1880 und an die Tragödie Amir Scher Alis mag Amir Habibullah dazu bewogen haben, sich gegen den Jihad gegen England und für die vorläufige Neutralität des Landes zu entscheiden.
Daher wurde mit der deutschen Mission eine Kompromißerklärung gesucht und gefunden. Danach wurde die Erklärung Jihads auf den Zeitpunkt verlegt, zu dem das Deutsche Reich in der Lage wäre, für einen afghanischen Krieg gegen die Alliierten mit Waffen und Soldaten einzuspringen. Dieser Kompromiß, der in dem denkwürdigen ersten Dokument, das Afghanistan mit einer europäischen Macht außer England und Rußland (vor 71 Jahren am 24. 1. 1916), unterzeichnete seinen Niederschlag fand, rettete wahrscheinlich das Land vor einem ruinösen Krieg mit England und Rußland. Für den König brachte er aber seine weitgehende Isolierung vom afghanischen Volk und seiner Familie, die mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit bei seiner Ermordung im Jahre 1919 eine Rolle spielte. In diesem Dokument wurde 3 bzw. 5 Jahre vor der Unterzeichnung der Verträge mit England und 5 Jahre vor der Unterzeichnung der Freundschaftsverträge mit Persien, der Türkei und der UdSSR die Unabhängigkeit Afghanistans durch das Deutsche Reich anerkannt. Auf dieser Grundlage wurde wohl auch im Deutsch-Sowjetischen Vertrag von Brest-Litofsk von 1918 die Unabhängigkeit Afghanistans bestätigt. Die deutsche Mission, deren Mehrheit im Mai 1916 Kabul verließ, aber ihre Tätigkeit in Afghanistan, in Zentralasien und in den Stammesgebieten zwischen Afghanistan und Indien weiterführte, konnte m. E. für Deutschland mehr als dieses Dokument des Freundschaftsvertrages vorweisen.Denn: Das Gefühl der Solidarität der Afghanen mit den Türken in der Sache des Islams und die entsprechende Feindschaft gegen England und Rußland hatte sich inzwischen durch die Weigerung des Königs, gegen England Jihad zu erklären, auch zu einer emotionalen Sympathie mit Deutschland entwickelt. Damit wurde die deutsch-afghanische Freundschaft zur Zeit ihrer Gründung von der breiten Masse der Afghanen selbst gegen ihren Herrscher mitgetragen. Diese nationale Sympathie der Afghanen zu den Deutschen hat die gegenseitige Beziehung beider Länder seither dauernd mitgeprägt. Selbst im Laufe des ersten Weltkrieges sollte sich diese Situation zugunsten jener Deutschen und Österreicher auswirken, die sich aus der russischen Gefangenschaft nach Afghanistan retten konnten.
www.afghan-german.de/
Es gab in Kabul übrigens noch in den 70er Jahren eine deutsche Schule,auf die auch der Konig Zahir gegangen ist,auch das Goetheinstitut war vertreten.
Die jetzige Situation leider auf englisch,aber hervorragend recherchiert von der Menschenrechtsorganisation:
www.hrw.org/reports/2001/afghan2/
www.hrw.org/reports/2001/afghan2/Afghan0701-01.htm#P181_37555
The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, or Taliban
The Taliban are the product of the network of private, rural-based madrasas (religious schools) in Afghanistan and the neighboring areas of Pakistan. During the war against the Soviet Union (1979-1989), these schools constituted one of the important sources of recruitment for mujahidin-the guerrillas fighting Soviet forces in Afghanistan.24 The Taliban leaders are for the most part mullahs-religious leaders-from Qandahar province trained in madrasas affiliated with the Deobandi movement in both Afghanistan and Pakistan.25 The head of the Taliban, Mullah Muhammad Omar, assumed the title amir-ul momineen (commander of the faithful); he is assisted by shuras, or consultative bodies. Mullah Omar renamed the Islamic State of Afghanistan the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan in October 1997. Arguably the most powerful agency within the emirate is the Ministry of Enforcement of Virtue and Suppression of Vice (al-Amr bi al-Ma'ruf wa al-Nahi `an al-Munkir), which is responsible for the enforcement of all Taliban decrees regarding moral behavior.26 The Taliban bases its demand to be recognized as the legitimate authority in Afghanistan largely on the claim that it has brought security to the country's population after years of anarchy under the warlords that preceded it. In most of the areas it controls, the Taliban administration operates as a repressive police state. Most government offices barely function. After it emerged in response to the failure of the mujahidin parties to establish a stable government, the Taliban quickly attracted the support of Pakistan and Saudi Arabia which provided the military and financial resources to make the Taliban an effective military force. An estimated 8-15,000 of the Taliban's fighting force comprises non-Afghans-nationals of Saudi Arabia, other Gulf states, and even China.27 Through cash payments or other incentives the Taliban has also secured the support of former mujahidin groups, particularly those associated with Hizb-i Islami.28 In October 1998 a breakaway faction of Hizb-i Wahdat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan (Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan), led by Hujjat-al-Islam Sayyid Muhammad Akbari, sided with the Taliban. Akbari is a non-Hazara Shi'a from the Qizilbash ethnic group, with religious training in Iran.
The United National Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan (Jabha-yi Muttahid-i Islami-yi Milli bara-yi Nijat-i Afghanistan), or United Front
In 1996, the groups opposed to the Taliban formed an alliance called the National Islamic United Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan, commonly known as the United Front, which supports the ousted government, the Islamic State of Afghanistan (ISA). The president of the ousted government, Burhanuddin Rabbani, remains the president of the ISA and the titular head of the United Front. The real power is the Front's military leader, Commander Ahmad Shah Massoud, who is also the ISA's minister of defense. The alliance receives assistance of various kinds-military, financial, and diplomatic-from Iran, Russia, and neighboring states. The precise membership of the United Front has varied from time to time, but includes:
· Jamiat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan (hereinafter known as Jamiat). Jamiat was one of the original Islamist parties in Afghanistan, established in the 1970s by students at Kabul University where its leader, Burhanuddin Rabbani, was a lecturer at the Islamic Law Faculty. Although Rabbani remains the official head of Jamiat, the most powerful figure within the party is Ahmad Shah Massoud. Both Rabbani and Massoud are Tajiks (Persian-speaking Sunni Muslims) but from different areas. Massoud's ethnic power base has historically been in Parwan and Takhar provinces, where he established a regional administrative structure in the late 1980s, the Supervisory Council of the North (SCN, Shura-yi Nazar-i Shamali). Massoud has received significant military and other support from Iran and Russia, in particular.
· Hizb-i Wahdat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan (Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan, hereinafter known as Hizb-i Wahdat). The principal Shi'a party in Afghanistan with support mainly among theHazara ethnic community, Hizb-i Wahdat was originally formed by Abdul Ali Mazari in order to unite eight Shi'a parties in the run-up to the anticipated collapse of the communist government. Its current leader is Muhammad Karim Khalili. The leader of its Executive Council of the North, Haji Muhammad Muhaqqiq, commanded the party's forces in Mazar-i Sharif in 1997. Hizb-i Wahdat has received significant military and other support from Iran, although relations between Iranian authorities and party leaders have been strained over issues of control. The party has also received significant support from local Hazara traders.
· Junbish-i Milli-yi Islami-yi Afghanistan (National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan, hereinafter known as Junbish). Junbish brought together northern, mostly ethnic Uzbek, former militias of the communist regime who mutinied against President Najibullah in early 1992. It also included former leaders and administrators of the old regime from various other ethnic groups, mainly Persian-speaking, and some Uzbek mujahidin commanders. In 1998 it lost all of the territory under its control, and many of its commanders have since defected to the Taliban. Its founder and principal leader was Abdul Rashid Dostum, who rose from security guard to leader of Najibullah's most powerful militia. This group took control of the important northern city of Mazar-i Sharif in alliance with other groups in early 1992 and controlled much of Samangan, Balkh, Jowzjan, Faryab, and Baghlan provinces. A coalition of militias, the Junbish was the strongest force in the north during 1992-97, but was riven by internal disputes. Since 1998 the Junbish has largely been inactive, although Dostum returned to northern Afghanistan in April 2001.
· Harakat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan (Islamic Movement of Afghanistan). This is a Shi'a party that never joined Hizb-i Wahdat, led by Ayatollah Muhammad Asif Muhsini, and which was allied with Jamiat in 1993-95. It has since fought with Hizb-i Wahdat in central Afghanistan. Its leadership is mostly non-Hazara Shi'a. Its most prominent commander is General Anwari. The group has received support from Iran.
· Ittihad-i Islami Bara-yi Azadi Afghanistan (Islamic Union for the Liberation of Afghanistan). This party is headed by Abdul Rasul Sayyaf. During the war against the Soviet occupation, Sayyaf obtained considerable assistance from Saudi Arabia. Arab volunteers supported by Saudi entrepreneurs fought with Sayyaf's forces.
Until August 1998, the northern areas under control by United Front forces had four main administrative and political centers: Mazar-i Sharif; Taloqan, the headquarters of Ahmad Shah Massoud's SNC; Shiberghan, Abdul Rashid Dostum's headquarters; and Bamian, headquarters of the Hizb-i Wahdat administration of Hazarajat. On paper, Dostum was deputy to the president of the ISA and military commander of the northern regions; Muhammad Muhaqqiq was minister of internal affairs; and an official of the Akbari faction was a deputy prime minister. However, these four leaders did not merge their military and command structures, and they did not come up with a unified strategy in their struggle with the Taliban. Each had different patrons among Afghanistan's neighbors, and the latter's interests fueled divisions among their clients.
On April 27, 1978, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a small, factionalized Marxist-Leninist party, took power in a coup.29 The government then embarked on a campaign of radical land reform over the opposition of regional elites. The campaign was accompanied by mass repression in the countryside that resulted in the arrest and summary execution of tens of thousands.30 Those targeted included political figures, religious leaders, teachers, students, other professionals, members of ethnic minorities, particularly Hazaras,31 and members of Islamic organizations. The government's repressive measures, particularly its attempt to reform rural society through terror, provoked uprisings throughout the country. Alarmed by the deteriorating situation and the prospect that a disintegrating Afghanistan would threaten its security on its southern border, the Soviet Union airlifted thousands of troops into Kabul on December 24, 1979. The president, Hafizullah Amin, was assassinated after Soviet intelligence forces took control of the government and installed Babrak Karmal as president.32
The Soviet occupation force and the Karmal government sought to crush the uprisings with mass arrests, torture, and executions of dissidents, and aerial bombardments and executions in the countryside. These measures further expanded the resistance to the communist government in Kabul and fueled a flow of refugees out of the country that soon reached five million out of a population of about sixteen million.33 Islamic organizations that became the heart of the resistance based themselves in Pakistan and Iran. Seeing the conflict as a cold war battleground, the United States and Saudi Arabia, in particular, provided massive support for the resistance, nearly all of it funneled through Pakistan (with China, France, and the United Kingdom als playing a part). The arms pipeline gave Pakistan a tremendous ability to bolster parties in Afghanistan that would serve its own interests.
Negotiations to end the war culminated in the 1988 Geneva Accords, whose centerpiece was an agreement by the Soviet Union to remove all its uniformed troops by February 1989.34 The last Soviet troops did leave Afghanistan that month. With substantial assistance from the Soviet Union, the communist government of Karmal's successor, Dr. Najibullah, former head of the Afghan intelligence agency KHAD, held on to power through early 1992 while the United Nations frantically tried to assemble a transitional process acceptable to all the parties. It failed.35 On April 15, 1992, the mujahidin took Kabul. Eleven days later, in an agreement that excluded the Shi'a parties and the Hizb-i Islami led by Gulbuddin Hikmatyar-the protégé of Pakistan-the parties in Kabul announced that Sighabutallah Mojadeddi of the Jabha-i Najat-i Milli (National Salvation Front) would become president for two months, followed by Prof. Burhanuddin Rabbani of the Jamiat-i Islami for four. Rejecting the arrangement, Hikmatyar launched massive and indiscriminate rocket attacks on Kabul that continued intermittently for three years, until he was forced out of the Kabul area in February 1995.
In June 1992 Rabbani became president of Afghanistan, while Hikmatyar continued to bombard Kabul with rockets. The U.N. reported that 1,800 civilians died in rocket attacks between May and August, and 500,000 people fled the city. In fighting between the Hizb-i Wahdat and another mujahidin faction, Sayyaf's Ittihad-i Islami, hundreds of civilians were abducted and "disappeared."36 When most of the parties boycotted the shura that was supposed to elect the next president-after Rabbani manipulated the process to place his supporters on the council-Rabbani was again elected president in December 1992, and fighting in Kabul intensified. In January 1994, Hikmatyar joined forces with Dostum to oust Rabbani and his defense minister, Massoud, launching full-scale civil war in Kabul. In 1994 alone, an estimated 25,000 were killed in Kabul, most of them civilians killed in rocket and artillery attacks. One-third of the city was reduced to rubble, and much of the remainder sustained serious damage.37 In September 1994, fighting between the two major Shi'a parties, the Hizb-i Wahdat and the Harakat-i Islami, left hundreds dead, most of them civilians.38 Thousands of new refugees fled to Pakistan that year.
By 1994 the rest of the country was carved up among the various factions, with many mujahidin commanders establishing themselves as virtual warlords. The situation around the southern city of Qandahar was particularly precarious: the city was divided among different forces, and civilians had little security from murder, rape, looting, or extortion. Humanitarian agencies frequently found their offices stripped of all equipment, their vehicles hijacked, and their staff threatened.
It was against this background that the Taliban emerged. Former mujahidin who were disillusioned with the chaos that had followed the mujahidin victory became the nucleus of a movement that coalesced around Mullah Mohammad Omar, a former mujahid who had returned to his home village of Singesar in Qandahar province in 1992 where he became the village mullah and head of the local madrasa
The group, many of whom were madrasa students, called themselves taliban, meaning students. Many others who became core members of the group were commanders in other predominantly Pashtun parties, and former Khalqi PDPA members.39 Their stated aims were to restore stability and enforce (their interpretation of) Islamic law. The Taliban's first military operation has acquired mythic status in Taliban ranks: In early 1994 the Taliban attacked the headquarters of a local commander who had been responsible for numerous rapes, murders and lootings. Similar campaigns against other warlords followed, and the Taliban soon gained a reputation for military prowess and acquired an arsenal of captured weaponry. By October 1994 the movement had attracted the support of Pakistan, which saw in the Taliban a way to secure trade routes to Central Asia and establish a government in Kabul friendly to its interests.40
The Taliban's first large military operation took place in October 1994 when it seized the Pasha munitions depot and the town of Spin Boldak on the Pakistani border, held at the time by Hizb-i Islami commanders. The capture of the arms dump provided them with an enormous quantity of military materiel, including rockets, ammunition, artillery, and small arms.41 Two weeks later the Taliban freed a Pakistani trade convoy that was being held by commanders demanding exorbitant tolls outside Qandahar; the convoy's real objective was to examine the feasibility of constructing a rail line along the route-a priority for the government of Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto.42 Shortly thereafter the Taliban took control of Qandahar after the local commander, loyal to the Rabbani government, ordered his forces not to resist.43 In the process the Taliban captured heavy weapons and aircraft, including MiG fighters, helicopters, and tanks. The Qandahar attack was also notable for the appearance of large numbers of Pakistani madrasa students serving as soldiers for the Taliban, most of whom entered Afghanistan by bus at the newly-seized Chaman/Spin Boldak crossing with the knowledge of Pakistani border officials.44 By December 1994 the Taliban had spread north and east to the outskirts of Kabul and west toward Herat. Pakistani traders who had long sought a secure route to send their goods to Central Asia quickly became some of the Taliban's strongest financial backers.
In January 1995 the Taliban advanced on Kabul, squeezing Hikmatyar between their forces and the ISA forces of Defense Minister Massoud.45 In February, Hikmatyar abandoned his position at Charasyab and left behind significant stores of weapons. Under an apparent agreement with Massoud, who was preoccupied with fighting Hizb-i Wahdat, the Taliban occupied the base at Charasyab. A massive assault by Massoud against Hizb-i Wahdat then drove its leader, Abdul Ali Mazari, to strike a deal with the Taliban. But after a faction of Hizb-i Wahdat joined with Massoud instead, Massoud launched a full-scale assault on the Taliban, driving them out of Charasyab.46 Combat resumed in the late summer and fall of 1995, with the Taliban defeating ISA forces in the west and occupying Shindand and Herat by September 3. The occupation of the strategic town of Herat by the Taliban was a terrible blow to ISA forces, and cut off the land route connecting the ISA with Iran. The Taliban's innovative use of mobile warfare hinted at a Pakistani role in the capture of Herat (see Chapter III).
In 1996 fighting shifted to the east, and the string of Taliban victories continued, culminating in September in its greatest victories to date, the seizures of Jalalabad on September 11 and Kabul itself by the end of the month, although the bulk of the United Front forces holding the city were able to withdraw to the north intact. With the fall of Kabul, the battle lines in eastern Afghanistan largely stabilized, cutting across the fertile Shamali plain. Until early 1999, Massoud remained within artillery range of Kabul and repeatedly fired rockets into the city. Though he denied targeting civilians, many were killed, including more than sixty-five in a two-day attack in September 1998.47 Sometime after Massoud's loss of Kabul, he began to obtain military assistance from Russia as well as Iran.
In the west, fighting resumed in 1997 as the Taliban attacked the predominantly Uzbek Junbish forces commanded by General Dostum. Dostum had carved out what amounted to a mini-state in northern Afghanistan comprising five provinces and administered from Mazar-i Sharif, and up to this point had appeared to be one of the strongest powers in Afghanistan. Hizb-i Wahdat also maintained a significant force in Mazar-i Sharif (which has a large Hazara population) in an uneasy alliance with Dostum. As had happened elsewhere, however, the military stalemate was broken when one of Dostum's deputies, Gen. Abdul Malik Pahlawan (generally known as "Malik"), allied with the Taliban and turned on Dostum on May 19, 1997, arresting a number of Junbish commanders and as many as 5,000 soldiers.
Pakistan was quick to seize the opportunity to recognize the Taliban as the government of Afghanistan, on May 25; Saudi Arabia followed on May 26 and the UAE on May 27.48 But the fortunes of the Taliban were suddenly reversed at the end of May as the alliance with Malik disintegrated, apparently after Taliban troops began trying to disarm the local Hazara population in Mazar-i Sharif. As the Hazaras turned on them, the Taliban soon found its fighters trapped. Hundreds of Taliban soldiers were killed in the streets of Mazar, and some 3,000, most of whom were in Dostum's headquarters at Shiberghan, were taken prisoner by Malik. Nearly all of these detainees were then summarily executed.49 Within days, the remains of the Taliban occupation force had been driven from the city and commanders loyal to Malik had regained control of Jowzjan, Sar-i Pol, and Faryab provinces, establishing a front line with the Taliban along the Morghab river in Baghdis province. However, the Taliban were able to consolidate control over the province of Konduz, a predominantly Pashtun pocket in the north that had come under its control after the Pashtun shura switched sides.50
The Taliban troops in Konduz attacked west towards Mazar-i Sharif in early September 1997, after being reinforced with men and munitions airlifted from Kabul and gaining further aid from the defection of several commanders holding positions in the area. In fighting over the next several weeks Taliban forces were again pushed back to Konduz. During its retreat, the Taliban attacked villages along the way, killing at least eighty-six civilians.51 In August 1998 Taliban forces opened their third assault on Mazar-i Sharif, and this time took the city decisively. They massacred at least 2,000 people, most of them Hazara civilians, after they took the city, and killed an unknown number of people in aerial bombardments.52In August 1998, the United States launched air strikes against reputed training camps near the Pakistan border. The strikes, which the U.S. justified as attacks on the headquarters of Osama bin Laden, came in the wake of the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Nairobi and Dar es-Salaam. Following these strikes, on August 20, the U.N. and most international humanitarian agencies withdrew their staff from the country. In September 1998 the Taliban took control of the predominantly Hazara town of Bamian, west of Kabul; local activists and foreign observers documented reprisal killings in the city after the takeover.53 Massoud remained within artillery range of Kabul and repeatedly fired rockets into the city, killing civilians, while claiming to be targeting the airport, which is on the northeastern edge of the city. (See below.)
In late July 1999, at peace talks held in Tashkent, the Six Plus Two contact group issued the "Tashkent Declaration," which called on all parties to resolve the conflict through "peaceful political negotiation," and pledged "not to provide military support to any Afghan party and to prevent the use of our territories for such purposes."54 Almost immediately afterwards, both the Taliban and the United Front resumed fighting, with the Taliban focusing its efforts on territory held by Massoud's forces north of Kabul. As it pushed north, the Taliban forced civilians from their homes and then set fire to houses and crops, and destroyed irrigation canals and wells, ostensibly to rout opposition sympathizers but effectively preventing the residents' return. In the Shamali region, men believed to be loyal to Massoud were arrested or shot, and women and children either fled or were taken to Jalalabad and Kabul. Over four days in August the U.N. estimated that over 20,000 people arrived in Kabul, bringing the total to close to 40,000 in a two-week period. Thousands more fled to the Massoud-held Panjshir valley. In September, Taliban fighter planes bombed Taloqan, the capital of northern Takhar province. In October the U.N imposed sanctions on the Taliban, banning Taliban-controlled aircraft from takeoff and landing and freezing the Taliban's assets abroad.
In mid-2000 the Taliban mounted yet another offensive-again with considerable backing from Pakistan. On September 5 the Taliban captured Taloqan. Fighting in the area, combined with the effects of a severe drought, drove thousands of civilians from the area east to Faizabad and Pakistan or north to Tajikistan. As of June 2001, Massoud's forces had regained territory to the north and east of Taloqan but remained well outside the city itself. His headquarters were reported to be in Khoja Bahauddin in northern Takhar province.55 Elsewhere, forces believed to be loyal to Ismael Khan and General Dostum were responsible for guerrilla attacks on Taliban forces in western and northern Afghanistan in April and May 2001.
Menschenrechtsverletzungen durch beide Seiten
Violations by United Front Factions and Violations by the Taliban
am schlimmsten wohl in Mazar-i-Sharif 1997 und 1998
Late May 1997: Some 3,000 captured Taliban soldiers were summarily executed in and around Mazar-i Sharif by Junbish forces under the command of Gen. Abdul Malik Pahlawan. The killings followed Malik's withdrawal from a brief alliance with the Taliban and the capture of the Taliban forces who were trapped in the city. Some of the Taliban troops were taken to the desert and shot, while others were thrown down wells and then blown up with grenades.77
August 1998: After capturing Mazar-i Sharif on August 8, more than a year after some 3,000 of its soldiers had been captured and murdered there, Taliban troops rounded up and summarily executed at least 2,000 civilians, the majority of them ethnic Hazaras. Thousands more, including ethnic Uzbek and Tajik men, were detained. The Taliban governor, Mullah Manon Niazi, made inflammatory speeches in which he accused the Hazaras of murdering Taliban soldiers in 1997 and ordered them to become Sunni Muslims or risk being killed. Many civilians were also killed in aerial bombardments and rocket attacks as they tried to flee the city. There were reports that in certain Hazara neighborhoods, a number of women were raped and abducted by Taliban troops.71
· September 1997: Retreating Taliban forces summarily executed ethnic Shi'a Hazara villagers near Mazar-i Sharif after having failed to capture the city. According to the U.N. Special Rapporteur for Afghanistan, fifty-three villagers were summarily executed in one city, Qezelabad, and some twenty houses set on fire. In the village of Sheikhabad, some thirty elderly people were reported to have been summarily executed. Killings of a similar type were also reported in other villages in the area.72
und auch Maasouds Truppen :
March 1995: Jamiat forces were responsible for rape and looting after they captured Kabul's predominantly Hazara neighborhood of Karte Seh from other factions. According to the U.S. State Department's 1996 report on human rights practices in 1995, "Massood's troops went on a rampage, systematically looting whole streets and raping women."79
· On the night of February 11, 1993 Jamiat and Ittihad-i Islami forces conducted a raid in the Hizb-i Wahdat neighborhoods of West Kabul, killing and "disappearing" Hazara civilians, and committing widespread rape. Estimates of those killed range from about seventy to more than one hundred.80
For more information see Human Rights Watch, "Afghanistan: The Massacre in Mazar-i Sharif," A Human Rights Watch Short Report, vol. 10, no. 7 (November 1998)
The Hazaras are a predominantly Shi'a minority. The central mountain area of Afghanistan, where Hazaras have lived for centuries, is called Hazarajat. Other minority ethnic groups include the Tajiks and the Uzbeks.
In addition, the parties that constitute the United Front have committed other serious violations of internationally recognized human rights. In the years before the Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan, these parties had divided much of the country among themselves while battling for control of Kabul. There was virtually no rule of law in any of the areas under their control. In Kabul, the Jamiat, the Ittihad, and the Hizb-i Wahdat all engaged in rape, summary executions, arbitrary arrest, torture, and "disappearances." In Bamian, Hizb-i Wahdat commanders routinely tortured detainees for extortion purposes.81
One form of torture used by the Hizb-i Wahdat commanders in Bamian involved tying detainees inside gunnysacks along with dead bodies. In a notorious incident in Kabul in 1994 that amounts to a war crime, a Harakat commander executed and decapitated five Pashtun prisoners on the eve of cease-fire negotiations with a Pashtun commander.
The Role of Private Traders
When the Taliban carried out its first major military operation in October 1994, it reportedly quickly secured the support of Pakistan's trucking cartels based in Quetta and Chaman on the Afghanistan border. The traders, predominantly Pashtuns and drawn from many of the same tribes as the Taliban, reportedly saw in the Taliban a way to secure trade routes previously contested by predatory warlords. The duties imposed on trucks transiting Afghanistan from Pakistan became the Taliban's most important official source of income.95 Under Pakistan's 1950 Afghan Transit Trade Agreement (ATTA), sealed trucks carrying imported goods to Afghanistan may transit through Pakistan duty free. As part of a huge smuggling operation, trucks routinely turn around and sell the goods in smugglers' markets in Pakistan. Such smuggling operations reportedly skyrocketed after 1992, costing Pakistan at least U.S.$800 million in lost customs revenues in the next three years.96 In addition, the smuggling of Pakistani goods into Afghanistan increased dramatically. The same routes and carriers have been used to transport opium,97 and throughout the war, many of the same transport operators have leased their trucks for arms transport.98 A World Bank study estimated that income to the Taliban from taxing the Afghanistan-Pakistan smuggling trade amounted to U.S.$75 million in 1997.99
Despite the enormous costs to Pakistan's economy, the authorities in Pakistan have never taken serious steps to check the smuggling. As one local journalist told Human Rights Watch, army officers at the border have themselves benefited from the smuggling to such an extent that they require a convoy to transport their belongings when they are posted to another city.100 The Pakistani traders pay contributions to the madrasas where the Taliban are trained, thus linking them to the political parties that run the madrasas. The traders also make contributions to officials in the local and provincial administrations in Baluchistan and the Northwest Frontier Province who permit the smugglers' markets to operate.101 According to Rubin, "officials of these provinces also benefit from the system of permits in force for the export of food and fuel to the Taliban-controlled areas of Afghanistan."102 The Taliban thus has links to a broad range of Pakistan's military, political, and social institutions.
es folgt ein sehr interessanter Bericht über die militärische Unterstützung der Talibans durch Pakistan,auch über das militärische Training durch pakistanische Militärs.30% der Talibankämpfer sind Pakistani,ca 8000-15000 sind Araber,auch Algerier.Die Waffenlieferung erfolgt grösstenteils über private Waffenhändler :
Aid to the Taliban has made Pakistani individuals and companies rich, above and beyond the trading relationships discussed above. A number of Pakistani companies have carved out lucrative niches by purchasing munitions and spare parts abroad and then importing them into Afghanistan for resale to the Taliban. Private companies buy from Chinese manufacturers through dealers in Hong Kong and also from dealers in Dubai, in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). 131
This system of private procurement has arisen in part due to Taliban mistrust of and impatience with the system employed by Pakistan's ISI to control the Taliban's military operations. Established during the Soviet occupation, the ISI system does not release large amounts of munitions or fuel to Afghan commanders; only when an operation has been approved and cleared by the ISI and the Pakistan Army are the necessary supplies released.132
Militärische Ausbildung und Waffenlieferung
Interessant auch,dass Saudi Arabien der finanzielle Hauptunterstützer der Taliban war bis zum Attentat auf die amerikanische Botschaft in Tansania und Kenya.!996 wurde auch Waffenlieferung aus Saudi Arabien beobachtet auf dem Flughafen in Kandahar.Nach der Einstellung der diplomatischen Beziehungen 1998 flossen erhebliche Mittel aus privaten Quellen von Saudi Arabien zu den Taliban.
Der Iran hat seit Jahren die Nordfront unterstützt
Die Unterstützung der Nordfront ist wesentlich geringer.Finanzierung erfolgt durch Verkauf von Lapislazuli und Smaragden aus dem
Panjshirtal, die in Chitral, Pakistan an pakistanische Händler verkauft werden und von dort nach Islamabad und Peshawar gelangen.Auch die Salzproduktion und der Salzhandel liegen in der Hand der Nordallianz.Die Grenze zu Tajikistan ist über 1000 km lang,die Strassen miserabel,es gibt nur eine permanente Brücke über den Amu Darya ,ansonsten Fähren,die nur einen russischen LKW transportieren können.
Auch der Iran hat versucht seinen Einfluss auszubauen und liefert schon seit Jahren Waffen ,auch Minen, an die Nordfront .Jedoch hat diese offenbar Schwierigkeiten mit Nachlieferungen.Seit 1998 hat die Nordfront keinen Flughafen mehr.Auch das militärische Training der Nordfront erfolgte durch den Iran..Der Iran hat diese Waffen offenbar aus Russland erhalten..Es gibt auch direkte russische Waffenlieferungen aus Russland an die Nordfront über Tadschikistan..
In Kuliob in Tajikistan befindet sich offenbar der Stützpunkt und Flughafen über den die russischen Waffenlieferungen an die Nordfront laufen.
In dem mehrseitigen sorgfältig mit Quellenangaben versehenen Bericht der Human Rights Organisation folgen dann Aussagen zur Rolle von Tajikistan,Usbekistan,Kirgisien und Turkmenistan sowie ein Anhang über Waffenlieferungen an die Nordfront durch Iran. www.hrw.org/reports/2001/afghan2/
"Die verschiedenen afghanischen Exilgruppen hatten bis Mitte September sehr wenig Kontakt untereinander", sagt Thomas Ruttig, der das Kabuler Büro der Vereinten Nationen leitet. Trotz aller hektischen Bemühungen in den vergangenen Wochen steht bislang nur eine Vereinbarung: Der 1973 abgesetzte, in Rom lebende ehemalige König Zahir Shah (86) schmiedete einen Bund mit der "Nordallianz". Diese Gruppe, die im Norden des Landes gegen die Taliban kämpft, wird von Burhanuddin Rabbani geführt. Rabbani gehört zur tadschikischen Minderheit aus der Stadt Faizabad am Fuße des Pamirgebirges im Norden des Landes.
Doch der Pakt mit der Gruppe, die bei internen Auseinandersetzungen in der ersten Hälfte der 90er-Jahre die Hauptstadt Kabul in Schutt und Asche legte und deshalb von Afghanistans Paschtunenmehrheit im Süden gefürchtet wird, scheint dem König geschadet zu haben. "Dies war ein Fehler", sagt Ishaq Galiani von der "Bewegung der Nationalen Solidarität", der während der vergangenen Jahre Verbindungen zu den Taliban und zu ihren Gegnern pflegte. Galiani gilt deshalb als mögliche Kompromissfigur für die Ära nach Talibanchef Mullah Omar. Sein Nachteil: Er verfügt über keine militärische Hausmacht.
Galianis Befürchtungen scheinen sich zu bestätigen. "Wir hatten beschlossen, einen nationalen Rat, die ,Loya Jirga‘, zu unterstützen, die vom König einberufen werden soll", sagt Abdul Jalal Siddiqi, ein Stammesältester der Paschtunen aus der Provinz Khost bei einem Besuch in der pakistanischen Grenzstadt Peshawar. "Aber dann hörten wir, er habe sich mit der Nordallianz verbündet. Jetzt wollen wir unser Land verteidigen."
Unmut in den Provinzen
Siddiqis Heimatprovinz Khost gehört neben Paktia und Paktika zu den Regionen im Südosten Afghanistans, auf deren Stammesältesten ebenfalls die Hoffnungen für einen Sturz des Talibanregimes ruhen. Zweimal musste Mullah Omar während des vergangenen Jahres in Khost den Gouverneur auswechseln, weil die lokale Bevölkerung die Auswahl des "Führers der Gläubigen" ablehnte.
In der pakistanischen Stadt Quetta lässt der afghanische Exilpolitiker Hamid Karzai dennoch unverdrossen seine Kontakte jenseits der Grenze spielen, um eine "Loya Jirga" aller sozialen Kräfte auf die Beine zu stellen. "Wir müssen bestimmt 700 bis 1 000 Delegierte in einer Anfangsphase einladen," sagt er. Seit rund tausend Jahren nutzen Afghanen diese Beratungen, um sich aus selbst verschuldetem Schlamassel? zu retten. 1747 wurde bei einer "Loya Jirga" Ahmad Khan vom Durrani-Stamm zum König gewählt, ein Vorfahre des 1973 gestürzten Zahir Shah.
Mudschaheddin hoffen
Der Nachteil des Plans: Viele Mudschaheddin-Kommandeure aus der Zeit des Widerstands gegen die sowjetischen Besatzungstruppen versprechen sich von der Versammlung ein Comeback. Sie erinnern sich an die Zeiten des "Heiligen Kriegs" gegen Moskau, als der nordamerikanische Geheimdienst CIA in Hülle und Fülle US-Dollars an die Gotteskrieger verteilteSo kehrte nach Jahren des Exils in Dubai auch Abdul Haq nach Peshawar zurück und versucht nun, die Stammesältesten der Provinzen Nangahar, Kunar und Laghman auf seine Seite
zu ziehen. "Die Luftangriffe der USA sind ein Fehler", erklärte er am Mittwoch in der Hoffnung, den Nationalstolz der Paschtunen für seine Zwecke auszunutzen, "wir hätten in ein paar Monaten die Talibanführung ohnehin gestürzt".
Solche Ansichten gehören in das Reich der Träume. In der Vergangenheit wurden viele gefährliche Konkurrenten von den Talibanmilizen ermordet. Deshalb brauchen ihre Gegner nun eine "befreite Zone" oder ein UN-Protektorat unter internationalem militärischen Schutz. Dort könnte sich die "Loya Jirga" auf neutralem Boden treffen.
Nachbarstaaten besorgt
Freilich setzen auch Afghanistans Nachbarstaaten auf eine "Loya Jirga", um Meinungsverschiedenheiten beizulegen. Islamabad will unbedingt eine von der Nordallianz dominierte Regierung verhindern, weil die Hasara, Tadschiken- und Usbekenminderheiten sonst im Nachbarland tonangebend wären. Der Iran möchte keine Regierung mit einer überstarken Paschtunen-Fraktion. Zumindest eine Veränderung gegenüber den vergangenen Jahrzehnten gibt es. "Kein Nachbarland will seinen Einfluss mehr ausdehnen", sagt ein Diplomat, "jetzt wären alle mit einem stabilen und friedlichen Afghanistan zufrieden".
www.berlinonline.de/aktuelles/.../thema_heute/.html/81729.html
Um das Geschehen besser zu verstehen,habe ich hier einiges zusammengetragen.
Abriss der Geschichte Afghanistans seit der Jahrhundertwende
1893
--Die Durand Linie verknüpft die Grenzen Afghanistans mit Indien, teilt afghanische Völker und hinterläßt die Hälfte dieser Afghanen im heutigen Pakistan.
--1895
--Afghanistans nördliche Grenze wird erstellt und von den Russen gewährleistet.
--1901
--Abdur Rahman stirbt und sein Sohn Habibullah wird sein Nachfolger.
--Langsame Schritte zur Modernisierung.
--1907
--Rußland und Großbritannien unterschreiben das Übereinkommen von St. Petersburg, in dem verkündet wird, dass sich Afghanistan außerhalb des russischen Einflußbereiches befindet.
--1918
--Mahmud Tarzi (afghanischer Intellektueller) führt mit der Entwicklung mehrerer Zeitungen den modernen Journalismus in Afghanistan ein.
--1919
--Habibullah wird ermordet und sein Sohn Amanullah (der Reformkönig) übernimmt seinen Thron.
--Das erste afghanische Museum wird in Baghe Bala eingerichtet.
--1921
--Dritter britisch-afghanischer Krieg
--Die Briten werden erneut besiegt und Afghanistan übernimmt die gesamte Kontrolle über seine Auslandsangelegenheiten.
--Vertrag von Ranalpindi
--Amanullah Khan beginnt eine Serie von Bemühungen um die politische und soziale Modernisierung in die Wege zu leiten.
--1923
--Amanullah Khan ändert seinen Titel von Amir zu Padshah (König).
--1929
--Amanullah Khan wird von Habibullah Kalakani gestürzt.
--Nach diesem Sturz ersucht Mahmud Tarzi Asyl in der Türkei.
--Der Aufstieg und Sturz von Habibullah Kalakani wird als "Bache Saqaw" bekannt.
--Nadir Khan nimmt den Thron ein.
--Aufgrund der leeren Schatzkammer plündert seine Volksarmee Regierungsgebäude und Häuser reicher Bürger.
--Habibullah Kalakani, seine Unterstützer und einige Unterstützer Amanullah Khans werden von Nadir Khan umgebracht.
--Nadir Khan hat die gesamte Kontrolle.
--1930
--Mai --> Ein Pro-Amanullah Khan Aufstand wird von Nadir Khan unterdrückt.
--Nadir Khan schafft Reformen, die von Amanullah Khan fortgesetzt wurden um Afghanistan zu modernisieren, ab.
--1933
--Nadir Khan wird von einem Studenten ermordet.
--Sein Sohn Zahir erbt den Thron und regiert bis 1973.
--Zahir Shahs Onkel dienen als Premierminister und Berater bis 1953.
--Mahmud Tarzi stirbt im Alter von 68 Jahren in der Türkei.
--1934
--Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika bemerken Afghanistan.
--1938
--Die Staatsbank von Afghanistan wird gegründet.
--1939
--15. Januar --> Unbedeutender Pro-Amanullah Khan Aufstand
--1940
--Zahir Shah verkündet Afghanistans Neutralität während des 2. Weltkrieges.
--1947
--Großbritannien zieht sich aus Indien zurück.
--Pakistan entsteht aus indischen und afghanischen Gebieten.
--1949
--Afghanistans Parlament kündigt den Durand Vertrag und weigert sich die Durand Linie als offizielle Grenze zwischen Pakistan und Afghanistan anzuerkennen.
--Pashtunen in Pashtunistan (besetztes afghanisches Land) verkünden ein unabhängiges Pashtunistan, jedoch wird dieses von der Weltgemeinde nicht bestätigt.
--1953
--Prinz Mohammad Daoud wird Premierminister.
--1954
--Die USA lehnen Afghanistans Gesuch, militärische Ausrüstung zur Modernisierung der Armee zu kaufen, ab.
--1955
--Daoud wendet sich für militärische Unterstützung an die Sowjwtunion.
--Die Pashtunische Frage flammt auf.
--1956
--Kruschev und Bulgarien erklären sich bereit Afghanistan zu helfen.
--Enge Beziehung zwischen Afghanistan und der UDSSR
--1959
--Die Purdah wird freigestellt, Frauen beginnen sich in Universitäten einzuschreiben, die miterzieherisch geworden sind.
--Frauen beginnen in die Belegschaft der Regierung einzusteigen.
--1961
--Pakistan und Afghanistan sind wegen der Pashtunistan-Frage am Rande eines Krieges.
--1963-1964
--Zahir Shah verlangt Daouds Rücktritt.
--Dr. Mohammad Yusof wird Premierminister.
--1965
--Januar --> Die afghanische kommunistische Partei entsteht im Untergrund. Einer ihrer Gründer ist Babrak Karmal
--September --> erste nationale Wahlen unter der neuen Verfassung
--Karmal wird ins Parlament gewählt. Er ist Anstifter späterer Krawalle.
--Zahir und Yussof gründen die zweite Regierung.
--1969
--Zweite nationale Wahlen
--Babrak und Hafizullah Amin werden gewählt.
--1972
--Mohammad Moussa wird Premierminister.
--1973
--17. Juli --> Zahir Shahs Regierung wird durch einen von Daoud Khan und der PDPA (afgh. kommunistische Partei) geführten Militärputsch gestürzt, während er sich im Urlaub in Europa aufhält.
--Daoud Khan schafft die Monarchie ab und ernennt sich selbst zum Präsidenten
--Die afghanische Republik ist gegründet.
--1974--
--Die UNESCO ernennt Herat zum Weltkulturerbe.
--1975-1977
--Daoud Khan präsentiert eine neue Verfassung.
--Frauenrechte werden bestätigt.
--Daoud beginnt verdächtigte Gegner seiner Regierung zu vertreiben.
--1978
--Blutiger Kommunistenputsch
--Daoud wird umgebracht.
--Taraki wird Präsident und Karmal sein stellvertretender Premierminister.
--Spannungen steigern sich.
--Massenverhaftungen und Folter
-- Änderung der afghanischen Flagge
--Taraki unterzeichnet einen Freundschaftsvertrag mit der Sowjetunion.
--Juni --> Die afghanische Guerrilla Bewegung wird geboren, Mujahideen
--1979
--Massenermordungen
--Amerikanischer Botschafter wird ermordet.
--Taraki wird umgebracht und Hafizullah Amin übernimmt die Präsidentschaft.
--Amin wird hingerichtet und von Babrak Karmal ersetzt.
--Dezember --> Die Sowjetunion marschiert in Afghanistan ein.
--1980
--Dr. Najibullah wird aus der UDSSR zurückgebracht, um die Geheimpolizei zu führen.
--1984
--Die UN sendet Untersuchungsbeamte nach Afghanistan um gemeldete Menschenrechtsverletzungen zu überprüfen.
--1986
--Babrak Karmal wird durch Dr. Najibullah ersetzt.
--1987
--Najibullah schlägt Waffenruhe vor, doch die Mujahideen weigern sich mit einer "Marionettenregierung" zu verhandeln.
--Mujahideen siegen.
--1988--1989
--Die Sowjetunion verliert den Krieg gegen Afghanistan
--Totaler Rückzug der Sowjets am 15.02.1989.
--Der Friedensvertrag wird in Genf unterzeichnet.
--Laut Experten haben neben den Verwundeten, Selbstmördern und Ermordeten mindestens 40.000-50.000 Sowjets ihr Leben verloren.
--Mujahideen setzen ihren Kampf gegen Najibullahs Regime fort..
--Mai --> Afghanische Guerrillas wählen Sibhhatullah Mojadidi als Oberhaupt ihrer Regierung im Exil.
--1992
--15. April --> Die Mujahideen nehmen Kabul ein und befreien Afghanistan.
--Najibullah wird von der UN geschützt.
--Die Mujahideen gründen einen Islamischen Staat--Islamic Jihad Council
--Wahlen
--Iranische and pakistanische Interventionen steigen.
--Kämpfe
--Professor Burhannudin Rabbani wird zum Präsidenten gewählt.
--1994
--Die Taliban Milz wird geboren und dringt rapide in die islamische Regierung vor.
--Dostum und Hekmatyar fahren mit ihrem Kampf gegen Rabbanis Regierung fort.
--1995
--Massive Siege der Taliban.
--Verstärkte pakistanische und iranische Interventionen.
--1996
--Juni --> Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Oberhaupt der Hezbi-Islami, unterzeichnet einen Friedenspakt mit Rabbani und kehrt zurück nach Kabul um als Premierminister zu regieren.
--27. September --> Die Taliban Miliz zwingt Präsident Rabbani und seine Regierung Kabul zu verlassen.
--Nach der Eroberung Kabuls wird Najibullah von den Taliban öffentlich gehängt.
--Allianz zwischen der Regierung, Hezbi Wahdat und Dostum.
--Unerdrückung der Frauen durch die Taliban.
--Frauen müssen vollständig verschleiert sein, dürfen ihre Arbeit nicht mehr ausüben, nicht ohne männliche Begleitung das Haus verlassen oder gar weiße Socken tragen.
--Männer werden gezwungen Bärte zu tragen.
--Buzkashi, der afghanische Nationalsport wird geächtet und verboten.
--Spannungen verstärken sich, als die afghanische Regierung Pakistan beschuldigt die Taliban zu unterstützen.
--Massive Menschenrechtsverletzungen durch die Taliban.
www.afghan-german.de/d/gesch/gesch.htm
Afghanistan und seine Beziehungen zu Deutschland-Waffenhandel+Kultur
Ohne die Provokation der beiden großen Nachbarn soll nach Möglichkeiten gesucht werden, das Waffenmonopol Russlands und Englands zu unterlaufen, indem man eine andere europäische Quelle für Waffen erschließt. Den ersten, wenn auch bescheidenen Schritt in dieser Richtung unter- nahm der König im Jahre 1898, indem er Gottlieb Fleischer, einen deutschen Angestellten der Firma Krupp, anstellte. Er wurde allerdings bald, am 4. November 1904, das Opfer einer mysteriösen Mordattentats. Der erste Weltkrieg, der den Kriegsmächten einigermaßen globale Strategien aufzwang, konnte Deutschland dazu veranlassen, mit Afghanistan, einem strategisch wichtigem Land zwischen dem Imperium und dem englischen Kronjuwel Indien politischen Kontakt aufzunehmen. Damit fand die erst wirkliche und die Zukunft bestimmende Begegnung zwischen Afghanistan und Deutschland statt: Die gemeinsame Mission der Mittelmächte, bestehend aus den Türken, Deutschen und Österreichern, die auch von Indien begleitet wurde, kam im August 1915 in Herat und am 26. September 1915 in Kabul an. Den Kern dieser Mission bildete jedoch die deutsche Mission, die wegen ihre komplizierten Führungssituation meistens als Niedermayer-Heting-Mission bezeichnet wurde...
. Nach der Ankunft der Mission in Kabul wurde ihr klar, dass sie hier am Ziel ebenso große Schwierigkeiten zu bewältigen haben wird wie unterwegs, Denn der König mußte unter verschiedenen Maximen der afghanischen Politik eine konkrete Entscheidung über den Krieg und den Frieden treffen. Die Erinnerung an den zweiten anglo-afghanischen Krieg von 1878 - 1880 und an die Tragödie Amir Scher Alis mag Amir Habibullah dazu bewogen haben, sich gegen den Jihad gegen England und für die vorläufige Neutralität des Landes zu entscheiden.
Daher wurde mit der deutschen Mission eine Kompromißerklärung gesucht und gefunden. Danach wurde die Erklärung Jihads auf den Zeitpunkt verlegt, zu dem das Deutsche Reich in der Lage wäre, für einen afghanischen Krieg gegen die Alliierten mit Waffen und Soldaten einzuspringen. Dieser Kompromiß, der in dem denkwürdigen ersten Dokument, das Afghanistan mit einer europäischen Macht außer England und Rußland (vor 71 Jahren am 24. 1. 1916), unterzeichnete seinen Niederschlag fand, rettete wahrscheinlich das Land vor einem ruinösen Krieg mit England und Rußland. Für den König brachte er aber seine weitgehende Isolierung vom afghanischen Volk und seiner Familie, die mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit bei seiner Ermordung im Jahre 1919 eine Rolle spielte. In diesem Dokument wurde 3 bzw. 5 Jahre vor der Unterzeichnung der Verträge mit England und 5 Jahre vor der Unterzeichnung der Freundschaftsverträge mit Persien, der Türkei und der UdSSR die Unabhängigkeit Afghanistans durch das Deutsche Reich anerkannt. Auf dieser Grundlage wurde wohl auch im Deutsch-Sowjetischen Vertrag von Brest-Litofsk von 1918 die Unabhängigkeit Afghanistans bestätigt. Die deutsche Mission, deren Mehrheit im Mai 1916 Kabul verließ, aber ihre Tätigkeit in Afghanistan, in Zentralasien und in den Stammesgebieten zwischen Afghanistan und Indien weiterführte, konnte m. E. für Deutschland mehr als dieses Dokument des Freundschaftsvertrages vorweisen.Denn: Das Gefühl der Solidarität der Afghanen mit den Türken in der Sache des Islams und die entsprechende Feindschaft gegen England und Rußland hatte sich inzwischen durch die Weigerung des Königs, gegen England Jihad zu erklären, auch zu einer emotionalen Sympathie mit Deutschland entwickelt. Damit wurde die deutsch-afghanische Freundschaft zur Zeit ihrer Gründung von der breiten Masse der Afghanen selbst gegen ihren Herrscher mitgetragen. Diese nationale Sympathie der Afghanen zu den Deutschen hat die gegenseitige Beziehung beider Länder seither dauernd mitgeprägt. Selbst im Laufe des ersten Weltkrieges sollte sich diese Situation zugunsten jener Deutschen und Österreicher auswirken, die sich aus der russischen Gefangenschaft nach Afghanistan retten konnten.
www.afghan-german.de/
Es gab in Kabul übrigens noch in den 70er Jahren eine deutsche Schule,auf die auch der Konig Zahir gegangen ist,auch das Goetheinstitut war vertreten.
Die jetzige Situation leider auf englisch,aber hervorragend recherchiert von der Menschenrechtsorganisation:
www.hrw.org/reports/2001/afghan2/
www.hrw.org/reports/2001/afghan2/Afghan0701-01.htm#P181_37555
The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, or Taliban
The Taliban are the product of the network of private, rural-based madrasas (religious schools) in Afghanistan and the neighboring areas of Pakistan. During the war against the Soviet Union (1979-1989), these schools constituted one of the important sources of recruitment for mujahidin-the guerrillas fighting Soviet forces in Afghanistan.24 The Taliban leaders are for the most part mullahs-religious leaders-from Qandahar province trained in madrasas affiliated with the Deobandi movement in both Afghanistan and Pakistan.25 The head of the Taliban, Mullah Muhammad Omar, assumed the title amir-ul momineen (commander of the faithful); he is assisted by shuras, or consultative bodies. Mullah Omar renamed the Islamic State of Afghanistan the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan in October 1997. Arguably the most powerful agency within the emirate is the Ministry of Enforcement of Virtue and Suppression of Vice (al-Amr bi al-Ma'ruf wa al-Nahi `an al-Munkir), which is responsible for the enforcement of all Taliban decrees regarding moral behavior.26 The Taliban bases its demand to be recognized as the legitimate authority in Afghanistan largely on the claim that it has brought security to the country's population after years of anarchy under the warlords that preceded it. In most of the areas it controls, the Taliban administration operates as a repressive police state. Most government offices barely function. After it emerged in response to the failure of the mujahidin parties to establish a stable government, the Taliban quickly attracted the support of Pakistan and Saudi Arabia which provided the military and financial resources to make the Taliban an effective military force. An estimated 8-15,000 of the Taliban's fighting force comprises non-Afghans-nationals of Saudi Arabia, other Gulf states, and even China.27 Through cash payments or other incentives the Taliban has also secured the support of former mujahidin groups, particularly those associated with Hizb-i Islami.28 In October 1998 a breakaway faction of Hizb-i Wahdat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan (Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan), led by Hujjat-al-Islam Sayyid Muhammad Akbari, sided with the Taliban. Akbari is a non-Hazara Shi'a from the Qizilbash ethnic group, with religious training in Iran.
The United National Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan (Jabha-yi Muttahid-i Islami-yi Milli bara-yi Nijat-i Afghanistan), or United Front
In 1996, the groups opposed to the Taliban formed an alliance called the National Islamic United Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan, commonly known as the United Front, which supports the ousted government, the Islamic State of Afghanistan (ISA). The president of the ousted government, Burhanuddin Rabbani, remains the president of the ISA and the titular head of the United Front. The real power is the Front's military leader, Commander Ahmad Shah Massoud, who is also the ISA's minister of defense. The alliance receives assistance of various kinds-military, financial, and diplomatic-from Iran, Russia, and neighboring states. The precise membership of the United Front has varied from time to time, but includes:
· Jamiat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan (hereinafter known as Jamiat). Jamiat was one of the original Islamist parties in Afghanistan, established in the 1970s by students at Kabul University where its leader, Burhanuddin Rabbani, was a lecturer at the Islamic Law Faculty. Although Rabbani remains the official head of Jamiat, the most powerful figure within the party is Ahmad Shah Massoud. Both Rabbani and Massoud are Tajiks (Persian-speaking Sunni Muslims) but from different areas. Massoud's ethnic power base has historically been in Parwan and Takhar provinces, where he established a regional administrative structure in the late 1980s, the Supervisory Council of the North (SCN, Shura-yi Nazar-i Shamali). Massoud has received significant military and other support from Iran and Russia, in particular.
· Hizb-i Wahdat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan (Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan, hereinafter known as Hizb-i Wahdat). The principal Shi'a party in Afghanistan with support mainly among theHazara ethnic community, Hizb-i Wahdat was originally formed by Abdul Ali Mazari in order to unite eight Shi'a parties in the run-up to the anticipated collapse of the communist government. Its current leader is Muhammad Karim Khalili. The leader of its Executive Council of the North, Haji Muhammad Muhaqqiq, commanded the party's forces in Mazar-i Sharif in 1997. Hizb-i Wahdat has received significant military and other support from Iran, although relations between Iranian authorities and party leaders have been strained over issues of control. The party has also received significant support from local Hazara traders.
· Junbish-i Milli-yi Islami-yi Afghanistan (National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan, hereinafter known as Junbish). Junbish brought together northern, mostly ethnic Uzbek, former militias of the communist regime who mutinied against President Najibullah in early 1992. It also included former leaders and administrators of the old regime from various other ethnic groups, mainly Persian-speaking, and some Uzbek mujahidin commanders. In 1998 it lost all of the territory under its control, and many of its commanders have since defected to the Taliban. Its founder and principal leader was Abdul Rashid Dostum, who rose from security guard to leader of Najibullah's most powerful militia. This group took control of the important northern city of Mazar-i Sharif in alliance with other groups in early 1992 and controlled much of Samangan, Balkh, Jowzjan, Faryab, and Baghlan provinces. A coalition of militias, the Junbish was the strongest force in the north during 1992-97, but was riven by internal disputes. Since 1998 the Junbish has largely been inactive, although Dostum returned to northern Afghanistan in April 2001.
· Harakat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan (Islamic Movement of Afghanistan). This is a Shi'a party that never joined Hizb-i Wahdat, led by Ayatollah Muhammad Asif Muhsini, and which was allied with Jamiat in 1993-95. It has since fought with Hizb-i Wahdat in central Afghanistan. Its leadership is mostly non-Hazara Shi'a. Its most prominent commander is General Anwari. The group has received support from Iran.
· Ittihad-i Islami Bara-yi Azadi Afghanistan (Islamic Union for the Liberation of Afghanistan). This party is headed by Abdul Rasul Sayyaf. During the war against the Soviet occupation, Sayyaf obtained considerable assistance from Saudi Arabia. Arab volunteers supported by Saudi entrepreneurs fought with Sayyaf's forces.
Until August 1998, the northern areas under control by United Front forces had four main administrative and political centers: Mazar-i Sharif; Taloqan, the headquarters of Ahmad Shah Massoud's SNC; Shiberghan, Abdul Rashid Dostum's headquarters; and Bamian, headquarters of the Hizb-i Wahdat administration of Hazarajat. On paper, Dostum was deputy to the president of the ISA and military commander of the northern regions; Muhammad Muhaqqiq was minister of internal affairs; and an official of the Akbari faction was a deputy prime minister. However, these four leaders did not merge their military and command structures, and they did not come up with a unified strategy in their struggle with the Taliban. Each had different patrons among Afghanistan's neighbors, and the latter's interests fueled divisions among their clients.
On April 27, 1978, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a small, factionalized Marxist-Leninist party, took power in a coup.29 The government then embarked on a campaign of radical land reform over the opposition of regional elites. The campaign was accompanied by mass repression in the countryside that resulted in the arrest and summary execution of tens of thousands.30 Those targeted included political figures, religious leaders, teachers, students, other professionals, members of ethnic minorities, particularly Hazaras,31 and members of Islamic organizations. The government's repressive measures, particularly its attempt to reform rural society through terror, provoked uprisings throughout the country. Alarmed by the deteriorating situation and the prospect that a disintegrating Afghanistan would threaten its security on its southern border, the Soviet Union airlifted thousands of troops into Kabul on December 24, 1979. The president, Hafizullah Amin, was assassinated after Soviet intelligence forces took control of the government and installed Babrak Karmal as president.32
The Soviet occupation force and the Karmal government sought to crush the uprisings with mass arrests, torture, and executions of dissidents, and aerial bombardments and executions in the countryside. These measures further expanded the resistance to the communist government in Kabul and fueled a flow of refugees out of the country that soon reached five million out of a population of about sixteen million.33 Islamic organizations that became the heart of the resistance based themselves in Pakistan and Iran. Seeing the conflict as a cold war battleground, the United States and Saudi Arabia, in particular, provided massive support for the resistance, nearly all of it funneled through Pakistan (with China, France, and the United Kingdom als playing a part). The arms pipeline gave Pakistan a tremendous ability to bolster parties in Afghanistan that would serve its own interests.
Negotiations to end the war culminated in the 1988 Geneva Accords, whose centerpiece was an agreement by the Soviet Union to remove all its uniformed troops by February 1989.34 The last Soviet troops did leave Afghanistan that month. With substantial assistance from the Soviet Union, the communist government of Karmal's successor, Dr. Najibullah, former head of the Afghan intelligence agency KHAD, held on to power through early 1992 while the United Nations frantically tried to assemble a transitional process acceptable to all the parties. It failed.35 On April 15, 1992, the mujahidin took Kabul. Eleven days later, in an agreement that excluded the Shi'a parties and the Hizb-i Islami led by Gulbuddin Hikmatyar-the protégé of Pakistan-the parties in Kabul announced that Sighabutallah Mojadeddi of the Jabha-i Najat-i Milli (National Salvation Front) would become president for two months, followed by Prof. Burhanuddin Rabbani of the Jamiat-i Islami for four. Rejecting the arrangement, Hikmatyar launched massive and indiscriminate rocket attacks on Kabul that continued intermittently for three years, until he was forced out of the Kabul area in February 1995.
In June 1992 Rabbani became president of Afghanistan, while Hikmatyar continued to bombard Kabul with rockets. The U.N. reported that 1,800 civilians died in rocket attacks between May and August, and 500,000 people fled the city. In fighting between the Hizb-i Wahdat and another mujahidin faction, Sayyaf's Ittihad-i Islami, hundreds of civilians were abducted and "disappeared."36 When most of the parties boycotted the shura that was supposed to elect the next president-after Rabbani manipulated the process to place his supporters on the council-Rabbani was again elected president in December 1992, and fighting in Kabul intensified. In January 1994, Hikmatyar joined forces with Dostum to oust Rabbani and his defense minister, Massoud, launching full-scale civil war in Kabul. In 1994 alone, an estimated 25,000 were killed in Kabul, most of them civilians killed in rocket and artillery attacks. One-third of the city was reduced to rubble, and much of the remainder sustained serious damage.37 In September 1994, fighting between the two major Shi'a parties, the Hizb-i Wahdat and the Harakat-i Islami, left hundreds dead, most of them civilians.38 Thousands of new refugees fled to Pakistan that year.
By 1994 the rest of the country was carved up among the various factions, with many mujahidin commanders establishing themselves as virtual warlords. The situation around the southern city of Qandahar was particularly precarious: the city was divided among different forces, and civilians had little security from murder, rape, looting, or extortion. Humanitarian agencies frequently found their offices stripped of all equipment, their vehicles hijacked, and their staff threatened.
It was against this background that the Taliban emerged. Former mujahidin who were disillusioned with the chaos that had followed the mujahidin victory became the nucleus of a movement that coalesced around Mullah Mohammad Omar, a former mujahid who had returned to his home village of Singesar in Qandahar province in 1992 where he became the village mullah and head of the local madrasa
The group, many of whom were madrasa students, called themselves taliban, meaning students. Many others who became core members of the group were commanders in other predominantly Pashtun parties, and former Khalqi PDPA members.39 Their stated aims were to restore stability and enforce (their interpretation of) Islamic law. The Taliban's first military operation has acquired mythic status in Taliban ranks: In early 1994 the Taliban attacked the headquarters of a local commander who had been responsible for numerous rapes, murders and lootings. Similar campaigns against other warlords followed, and the Taliban soon gained a reputation for military prowess and acquired an arsenal of captured weaponry. By October 1994 the movement had attracted the support of Pakistan, which saw in the Taliban a way to secure trade routes to Central Asia and establish a government in Kabul friendly to its interests.40
The Taliban's first large military operation took place in October 1994 when it seized the Pasha munitions depot and the town of Spin Boldak on the Pakistani border, held at the time by Hizb-i Islami commanders. The capture of the arms dump provided them with an enormous quantity of military materiel, including rockets, ammunition, artillery, and small arms.41 Two weeks later the Taliban freed a Pakistani trade convoy that was being held by commanders demanding exorbitant tolls outside Qandahar; the convoy's real objective was to examine the feasibility of constructing a rail line along the route-a priority for the government of Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto.42 Shortly thereafter the Taliban took control of Qandahar after the local commander, loyal to the Rabbani government, ordered his forces not to resist.43 In the process the Taliban captured heavy weapons and aircraft, including MiG fighters, helicopters, and tanks. The Qandahar attack was also notable for the appearance of large numbers of Pakistani madrasa students serving as soldiers for the Taliban, most of whom entered Afghanistan by bus at the newly-seized Chaman/Spin Boldak crossing with the knowledge of Pakistani border officials.44 By December 1994 the Taliban had spread north and east to the outskirts of Kabul and west toward Herat. Pakistani traders who had long sought a secure route to send their goods to Central Asia quickly became some of the Taliban's strongest financial backers.
In January 1995 the Taliban advanced on Kabul, squeezing Hikmatyar between their forces and the ISA forces of Defense Minister Massoud.45 In February, Hikmatyar abandoned his position at Charasyab and left behind significant stores of weapons. Under an apparent agreement with Massoud, who was preoccupied with fighting Hizb-i Wahdat, the Taliban occupied the base at Charasyab. A massive assault by Massoud against Hizb-i Wahdat then drove its leader, Abdul Ali Mazari, to strike a deal with the Taliban. But after a faction of Hizb-i Wahdat joined with Massoud instead, Massoud launched a full-scale assault on the Taliban, driving them out of Charasyab.46 Combat resumed in the late summer and fall of 1995, with the Taliban defeating ISA forces in the west and occupying Shindand and Herat by September 3. The occupation of the strategic town of Herat by the Taliban was a terrible blow to ISA forces, and cut off the land route connecting the ISA with Iran. The Taliban's innovative use of mobile warfare hinted at a Pakistani role in the capture of Herat (see Chapter III).
In 1996 fighting shifted to the east, and the string of Taliban victories continued, culminating in September in its greatest victories to date, the seizures of Jalalabad on September 11 and Kabul itself by the end of the month, although the bulk of the United Front forces holding the city were able to withdraw to the north intact. With the fall of Kabul, the battle lines in eastern Afghanistan largely stabilized, cutting across the fertile Shamali plain. Until early 1999, Massoud remained within artillery range of Kabul and repeatedly fired rockets into the city. Though he denied targeting civilians, many were killed, including more than sixty-five in a two-day attack in September 1998.47 Sometime after Massoud's loss of Kabul, he began to obtain military assistance from Russia as well as Iran.
In the west, fighting resumed in 1997 as the Taliban attacked the predominantly Uzbek Junbish forces commanded by General Dostum. Dostum had carved out what amounted to a mini-state in northern Afghanistan comprising five provinces and administered from Mazar-i Sharif, and up to this point had appeared to be one of the strongest powers in Afghanistan. Hizb-i Wahdat also maintained a significant force in Mazar-i Sharif (which has a large Hazara population) in an uneasy alliance with Dostum. As had happened elsewhere, however, the military stalemate was broken when one of Dostum's deputies, Gen. Abdul Malik Pahlawan (generally known as "Malik"), allied with the Taliban and turned on Dostum on May 19, 1997, arresting a number of Junbish commanders and as many as 5,000 soldiers.
Pakistan was quick to seize the opportunity to recognize the Taliban as the government of Afghanistan, on May 25; Saudi Arabia followed on May 26 and the UAE on May 27.48 But the fortunes of the Taliban were suddenly reversed at the end of May as the alliance with Malik disintegrated, apparently after Taliban troops began trying to disarm the local Hazara population in Mazar-i Sharif. As the Hazaras turned on them, the Taliban soon found its fighters trapped. Hundreds of Taliban soldiers were killed in the streets of Mazar, and some 3,000, most of whom were in Dostum's headquarters at Shiberghan, were taken prisoner by Malik. Nearly all of these detainees were then summarily executed.49 Within days, the remains of the Taliban occupation force had been driven from the city and commanders loyal to Malik had regained control of Jowzjan, Sar-i Pol, and Faryab provinces, establishing a front line with the Taliban along the Morghab river in Baghdis province. However, the Taliban were able to consolidate control over the province of Konduz, a predominantly Pashtun pocket in the north that had come under its control after the Pashtun shura switched sides.50
The Taliban troops in Konduz attacked west towards Mazar-i Sharif in early September 1997, after being reinforced with men and munitions airlifted from Kabul and gaining further aid from the defection of several commanders holding positions in the area. In fighting over the next several weeks Taliban forces were again pushed back to Konduz. During its retreat, the Taliban attacked villages along the way, killing at least eighty-six civilians.51 In August 1998 Taliban forces opened their third assault on Mazar-i Sharif, and this time took the city decisively. They massacred at least 2,000 people, most of them Hazara civilians, after they took the city, and killed an unknown number of people in aerial bombardments.52In August 1998, the United States launched air strikes against reputed training camps near the Pakistan border. The strikes, which the U.S. justified as attacks on the headquarters of Osama bin Laden, came in the wake of the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Nairobi and Dar es-Salaam. Following these strikes, on August 20, the U.N. and most international humanitarian agencies withdrew their staff from the country. In September 1998 the Taliban took control of the predominantly Hazara town of Bamian, west of Kabul; local activists and foreign observers documented reprisal killings in the city after the takeover.53 Massoud remained within artillery range of Kabul and repeatedly fired rockets into the city, killing civilians, while claiming to be targeting the airport, which is on the northeastern edge of the city. (See below.)
In late July 1999, at peace talks held in Tashkent, the Six Plus Two contact group issued the "Tashkent Declaration," which called on all parties to resolve the conflict through "peaceful political negotiation," and pledged "not to provide military support to any Afghan party and to prevent the use of our territories for such purposes."54 Almost immediately afterwards, both the Taliban and the United Front resumed fighting, with the Taliban focusing its efforts on territory held by Massoud's forces north of Kabul. As it pushed north, the Taliban forced civilians from their homes and then set fire to houses and crops, and destroyed irrigation canals and wells, ostensibly to rout opposition sympathizers but effectively preventing the residents' return. In the Shamali region, men believed to be loyal to Massoud were arrested or shot, and women and children either fled or were taken to Jalalabad and Kabul. Over four days in August the U.N. estimated that over 20,000 people arrived in Kabul, bringing the total to close to 40,000 in a two-week period. Thousands more fled to the Massoud-held Panjshir valley. In September, Taliban fighter planes bombed Taloqan, the capital of northern Takhar province. In October the U.N imposed sanctions on the Taliban, banning Taliban-controlled aircraft from takeoff and landing and freezing the Taliban's assets abroad.
In mid-2000 the Taliban mounted yet another offensive-again with considerable backing from Pakistan. On September 5 the Taliban captured Taloqan. Fighting in the area, combined with the effects of a severe drought, drove thousands of civilians from the area east to Faizabad and Pakistan or north to Tajikistan. As of June 2001, Massoud's forces had regained territory to the north and east of Taloqan but remained well outside the city itself. His headquarters were reported to be in Khoja Bahauddin in northern Takhar province.55 Elsewhere, forces believed to be loyal to Ismael Khan and General Dostum were responsible for guerrilla attacks on Taliban forces in western and northern Afghanistan in April and May 2001.
Menschenrechtsverletzungen durch beide Seiten
Violations by United Front Factions and Violations by the Taliban
am schlimmsten wohl in Mazar-i-Sharif 1997 und 1998
Late May 1997: Some 3,000 captured Taliban soldiers were summarily executed in and around Mazar-i Sharif by Junbish forces under the command of Gen. Abdul Malik Pahlawan. The killings followed Malik's withdrawal from a brief alliance with the Taliban and the capture of the Taliban forces who were trapped in the city. Some of the Taliban troops were taken to the desert and shot, while others were thrown down wells and then blown up with grenades.77
August 1998: After capturing Mazar-i Sharif on August 8, more than a year after some 3,000 of its soldiers had been captured and murdered there, Taliban troops rounded up and summarily executed at least 2,000 civilians, the majority of them ethnic Hazaras. Thousands more, including ethnic Uzbek and Tajik men, were detained. The Taliban governor, Mullah Manon Niazi, made inflammatory speeches in which he accused the Hazaras of murdering Taliban soldiers in 1997 and ordered them to become Sunni Muslims or risk being killed. Many civilians were also killed in aerial bombardments and rocket attacks as they tried to flee the city. There were reports that in certain Hazara neighborhoods, a number of women were raped and abducted by Taliban troops.71
· September 1997: Retreating Taliban forces summarily executed ethnic Shi'a Hazara villagers near Mazar-i Sharif after having failed to capture the city. According to the U.N. Special Rapporteur for Afghanistan, fifty-three villagers were summarily executed in one city, Qezelabad, and some twenty houses set on fire. In the village of Sheikhabad, some thirty elderly people were reported to have been summarily executed. Killings of a similar type were also reported in other villages in the area.72
und auch Maasouds Truppen :
March 1995: Jamiat forces were responsible for rape and looting after they captured Kabul's predominantly Hazara neighborhood of Karte Seh from other factions. According to the U.S. State Department's 1996 report on human rights practices in 1995, "Massood's troops went on a rampage, systematically looting whole streets and raping women."79
· On the night of February 11, 1993 Jamiat and Ittihad-i Islami forces conducted a raid in the Hizb-i Wahdat neighborhoods of West Kabul, killing and "disappearing" Hazara civilians, and committing widespread rape. Estimates of those killed range from about seventy to more than one hundred.80
For more information see Human Rights Watch, "Afghanistan: The Massacre in Mazar-i Sharif," A Human Rights Watch Short Report, vol. 10, no. 7 (November 1998)
The Hazaras are a predominantly Shi'a minority. The central mountain area of Afghanistan, where Hazaras have lived for centuries, is called Hazarajat. Other minority ethnic groups include the Tajiks and the Uzbeks.
In addition, the parties that constitute the United Front have committed other serious violations of internationally recognized human rights. In the years before the Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan, these parties had divided much of the country among themselves while battling for control of Kabul. There was virtually no rule of law in any of the areas under their control. In Kabul, the Jamiat, the Ittihad, and the Hizb-i Wahdat all engaged in rape, summary executions, arbitrary arrest, torture, and "disappearances." In Bamian, Hizb-i Wahdat commanders routinely tortured detainees for extortion purposes.81
One form of torture used by the Hizb-i Wahdat commanders in Bamian involved tying detainees inside gunnysacks along with dead bodies. In a notorious incident in Kabul in 1994 that amounts to a war crime, a Harakat commander executed and decapitated five Pashtun prisoners on the eve of cease-fire negotiations with a Pashtun commander.
The Role of Private Traders
When the Taliban carried out its first major military operation in October 1994, it reportedly quickly secured the support of Pakistan's trucking cartels based in Quetta and Chaman on the Afghanistan border. The traders, predominantly Pashtuns and drawn from many of the same tribes as the Taliban, reportedly saw in the Taliban a way to secure trade routes previously contested by predatory warlords. The duties imposed on trucks transiting Afghanistan from Pakistan became the Taliban's most important official source of income.95 Under Pakistan's 1950 Afghan Transit Trade Agreement (ATTA), sealed trucks carrying imported goods to Afghanistan may transit through Pakistan duty free. As part of a huge smuggling operation, trucks routinely turn around and sell the goods in smugglers' markets in Pakistan. Such smuggling operations reportedly skyrocketed after 1992, costing Pakistan at least U.S.$800 million in lost customs revenues in the next three years.96 In addition, the smuggling of Pakistani goods into Afghanistan increased dramatically. The same routes and carriers have been used to transport opium,97 and throughout the war, many of the same transport operators have leased their trucks for arms transport.98 A World Bank study estimated that income to the Taliban from taxing the Afghanistan-Pakistan smuggling trade amounted to U.S.$75 million in 1997.99
Despite the enormous costs to Pakistan's economy, the authorities in Pakistan have never taken serious steps to check the smuggling. As one local journalist told Human Rights Watch, army officers at the border have themselves benefited from the smuggling to such an extent that they require a convoy to transport their belongings when they are posted to another city.100 The Pakistani traders pay contributions to the madrasas where the Taliban are trained, thus linking them to the political parties that run the madrasas. The traders also make contributions to officials in the local and provincial administrations in Baluchistan and the Northwest Frontier Province who permit the smugglers' markets to operate.101 According to Rubin, "officials of these provinces also benefit from the system of permits in force for the export of food and fuel to the Taliban-controlled areas of Afghanistan."102 The Taliban thus has links to a broad range of Pakistan's military, political, and social institutions.
es folgt ein sehr interessanter Bericht über die militärische Unterstützung der Talibans durch Pakistan,auch über das militärische Training durch pakistanische Militärs.30% der Talibankämpfer sind Pakistani,ca 8000-15000 sind Araber,auch Algerier.Die Waffenlieferung erfolgt grösstenteils über private Waffenhändler :
Aid to the Taliban has made Pakistani individuals and companies rich, above and beyond the trading relationships discussed above. A number of Pakistani companies have carved out lucrative niches by purchasing munitions and spare parts abroad and then importing them into Afghanistan for resale to the Taliban. Private companies buy from Chinese manufacturers through dealers in Hong Kong and also from dealers in Dubai, in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). 131
This system of private procurement has arisen in part due to Taliban mistrust of and impatience with the system employed by Pakistan's ISI to control the Taliban's military operations. Established during the Soviet occupation, the ISI system does not release large amounts of munitions or fuel to Afghan commanders; only when an operation has been approved and cleared by the ISI and the Pakistan Army are the necessary supplies released.132
Militärische Ausbildung und Waffenlieferung
Interessant auch,dass Saudi Arabien der finanzielle Hauptunterstützer der Taliban war bis zum Attentat auf die amerikanische Botschaft in Tansania und Kenya.!996 wurde auch Waffenlieferung aus Saudi Arabien beobachtet auf dem Flughafen in Kandahar.Nach der Einstellung der diplomatischen Beziehungen 1998 flossen erhebliche Mittel aus privaten Quellen von Saudi Arabien zu den Taliban.
Der Iran hat seit Jahren die Nordfront unterstützt
Die Unterstützung der Nordfront ist wesentlich geringer.Finanzierung erfolgt durch Verkauf von Lapislazuli und Smaragden aus dem
Panjshirtal, die in Chitral, Pakistan an pakistanische Händler verkauft werden und von dort nach Islamabad und Peshawar gelangen.Auch die Salzproduktion und der Salzhandel liegen in der Hand der Nordallianz.Die Grenze zu Tajikistan ist über 1000 km lang,die Strassen miserabel,es gibt nur eine permanente Brücke über den Amu Darya ,ansonsten Fähren,die nur einen russischen LKW transportieren können.
Auch der Iran hat versucht seinen Einfluss auszubauen und liefert schon seit Jahren Waffen ,auch Minen, an die Nordfront .Jedoch hat diese offenbar Schwierigkeiten mit Nachlieferungen.Seit 1998 hat die Nordfront keinen Flughafen mehr.Auch das militärische Training der Nordfront erfolgte durch den Iran..Der Iran hat diese Waffen offenbar aus Russland erhalten..Es gibt auch direkte russische Waffenlieferungen aus Russland an die Nordfront über Tadschikistan..
In Kuliob in Tajikistan befindet sich offenbar der Stützpunkt und Flughafen über den die russischen Waffenlieferungen an die Nordfront laufen.
In dem mehrseitigen sorgfältig mit Quellenangaben versehenen Bericht der Human Rights Organisation folgen dann Aussagen zur Rolle von Tajikistan,Usbekistan,Kirgisien und Turkmenistan sowie ein Anhang über Waffenlieferungen an die Nordfront durch Iran. www.hrw.org/reports/2001/afghan2/